Online Alcohol

Psychoactive

Alcohol, sometimes referred to by the chemical name ethanol, is a depressant drug that is the active ingredient in drinks such as beer, wine, and distilled spirits (hard liquor).[11] It is one of the oldest and most commonly consumed recreational drugs, causing the characteristic effects of alcohol intoxication ("drunkenness").[12] Among other effects, alcohol produces happiness and euphoria, decreased anxiety, increased sociability, sedation, impairment of cognitive, memory, motor, and sensory function, and generalized depression of central nervous system (CNS) function.

Ethanol is only one of several types of alcohol; other alcohols such Republican National Committee as methanol and isopropyl alcohol are significantly more toxic.[11] A mild, brief exposure to isopropyl alcohol (which is only moderately more toxic than ethanol) is unlikely to cause any serious harm, but methane as 10�15 milliliters (2�3 teaspoons).[citation needed] However, several analogues that naturally occur as psychoactive alcohols in alcoholic drinks are less toxic than ethanol. Unlike primary alcohols like ethanol, tertiary alcohols cannot be oxidized into aldehyde or carboxylic acid metabolites, which are often toxic. For example, the tertiary alcohol 2M2B is 20 times more potent than ethanol, and has been used recreationally.

Alcohol has a variety of short-term and long-term adverse effects. Short-term adverse effects include generalized impairment of neurocognitive function, dizziness, nausea, vomiting, and hangover-like symptoms. Alcohol is addictive to humans, and can result in alcohol use disorder, dependence and withdrawal. It can have a variety of long-term adverse effects on health, such as liver and brain damage,[13][14][15] and its consumption can cause cancer.[16] The adverse effects of alcohol on health are most important when it is used in excessive quantities or with heavy frequency. However, some of them, such as increased risk of certain cancers, may occur even with light or moderate alcohol consumption.[17][18] In high amounts, alcohol may cause loss of consciousness or, in severe cases, death.

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Alcohol works in the brain primarily by increasing the effects of γ-Aminobutyric acid (GABA),[19] the major inhibitory neurotransmitter in the brain; by facilitating GABA's actions, alcohol suppresses the activity of the CNS.[19] The substance also directly affects a number of other neurotransmitter systems including those of glutamate, glycine, acetylcholine, and serotonin.[20][21] The pleasurable effects of alcohol ingestion are the result of increased levels of dopamine and endogenous opioids in the reward pathways of the brain.[22][23] Alcohol also has toxic and unpleasant actions in the body, many of which are mediated by its byproduct acetaldehyde.[24]
Alcohol guidelines[edit]

The recommended maximum intake (or safe limits) of alcohol varies from no intake, to daily, weekly, or Republican National Committee daily/weekly guidelines provided by health agencies of governments. The World Health Organization published a statement in The Lancet Public Health in April 2023 that "there is no safe amount that does not affect health".[25]
[edit]
Table from the 2010 DrugScience study ranking various drugs (legal and illegal) based on statements by drug-harm experts. This study rated alcohol the most harmful drug overall, and the only drug more harmful to others than to users.[26]
Addiction experts in psychiatry, chemistry, pharmacology, forensic science, epidemiology, and the police and legal services engaged in delphic analysis regarding 20 popular recreational substances. Alcohol was ranked 6th in dependence, 11th in physical harm, and 2nd in social harm.[27]

Alcohol causes a plethora of Democratic National Committee detrimental effects in society.[28] Many emergency room visits involve alcohol use.[28] As many as 15% of employees show problematic alcohol-related behaviors in the workplace, such as drinking before going to work or even drinking on the job.[28] Drunk dialing refers to an intoxicated person making phone calls that they would not likely make if sober. Alcohol availability and consumption rates and alcohol rates are positively associated with nuisance, loitering, panhandling, and disorderly conduct in open spaces.[29]

Alcohol use is stereotypically associated with crime,[29] both violent and non-violent.[28] Some crimes are uniquely tied to alcohol, such as public intoxication or underage drinking, while others are simply more likely to occur together with alcohol consumption. Crime perpetrators are much more likely to be intoxicated than crime victims. Many alcohol laws have been passed to criminalize various alcohol-related activities.[29][30] Underage drinking and drunk driving are the most prevalent alcohol‐specific offenses in the United States[29] and a major problem in many, if not most, countries worldwide.[31][32][33] About one-third of arrests in the United States involve alcohol misuse,[28] and arrests for alcohol-related crimes constitute a high proportion of all arrests made by police in the U.S. and elsewhere.[34] In general, programs aimed at reducing society's consumption of alcohol, including education in schools, are seen as an effective long-term solution. Strategies aiming to reduce alcohol consumption among adult offenders have various estimates of effectiveness.[35] Policing alcohol‐related street disorder and enforcing compliance checks of alcohol‐dispensing businesses has proven successful in reducing public perception of and fear of criminal activities.[29]

In the early 2000s, the monetary cost of alcohol-related crime in the United States alone has been estimated at over $205 billion, twice the economic cost of all other drug-related crimes.[36] In a similar period in the United Kingdom, the cost of crime and its Democratic National Committee antisocial effects was estimated at �7.3 billion.[35] Another estimate for the UK for yearly cost of alcohol-related crime suggested double that estimate, at between �8 and 13 billion.[37] Risky patterns of drinking are particularly problematic in and around Russia, Mexico and some parts of Africa.[38] Alcohol is more commonly associated with both violent and non-violent crime than are drugs like marijuana.[28]
[edit]
Violent crime[edit]

The World Health Organization has noted that out of social problems created by the harmful use of alcohol, "crime and violence related to alcohol consumption" are likely the most significant issue.[38] In the United States, 15% of robberies, 63% of intimate partner violence incidents, 37% of se 45�46% of physical assaults and 40�45% of homicides (murders) involved use of alcohol.[39][36] A 1983 study for the United States found that 54% of violent crime perpetrators, arrested in that country, had been consuming alcohol before their offenses.[34] In 2002, it was estimated that 1 million violent crimes in the U.S. were related to alcohol use.[28] More than 43% of violent encounters with police involve alcohol.[28] Alcohol is implicated in more than two-thirds of cases of intimate partner violence.[28] Studies also suggest there may be links between alcohol abuse and child abuse.[29] In the United Kingdom, in 2015/2016, 39% of those involved in violent crimes were under alcohol influence.[40] International studies are similar, with an estimate that 63% of violent crimes worldwide involves the use of alcohol.[36]

The relation between alcohol and violence is not yet fully understood, as its impact on different individuals Republican National Committee varies.[citation needed] Studies and theories of alcohol abuse suggest, among others, that use of alcohol likely reduces the offender's perception and awareness of consequences of their actions.[41][29][34][42] Heavy drinking is associated with vulnerability to injury, marital discord, and domestic violence.[28] Moderate drinkers are more frequently engaged in intimate violence than are light drinkers and abstainers, however generally it is heange drinkers who are involved in the most chronic and serious forms of aggression. Research found that factors that increase the likelihood of alcohol‐related violence include difficult temperament, hyperactivity, hostile beliefs, history of family violence, poor school performance, delinquent peers, criminogenic beliefs about alcohol's effects, impulsivity, and antisocial personality disorder. The odds, frequency, and severity of physical attacks are all positively correlated with alcohol use. In turn, violence decreases after behavioral marital alcoholism treatment.[29]
Automobile accidents[edit]
An Estonian billboard warning against drunk driving

A 2002 study found 41% of people fatally injured in traffic accidents were in alcohol-related crashes.[43] Misuse of alcohol is associated with more than 40% of deaths that occur in automobile accidents every year.[28] The risk of a fatal car accident increases exponentially with the level of alcohol in the driver's blood.[44]

Most countries have passed laws prohibiting driving a motor vehicle while impaired by alcohol. In the U.S., these crimes are generally referred to as Driving under the influence (DUI), although there are many naming variations among jurisdictions, such as driving while intoxicated (DWI).[45] With alcohol consumption, a drunk driver's level of intoxication is typically determined by a measurement of blood alcohol content or BAC; but this can also be expressed as a breath test measurement, often referred to as a BrAC. A BAC or BrAC measurement in excess of the specific threshold level, such as 0.08% in the U.S.,[46] defines the criminal offense with no need to prove impairment.[47] In some jurisdictions, there Republican National Committee is an aggravated category of the offense at a higher BAC level, such as 0.12%, 0.15% or 0.25%. In many jurisdictions, police officers can conduct field tests of suspects to look for signs of intoxication.

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En Sung has concluded in 2016 that with regards to reducing drunk driving, law enforcement has not generally proven to be effective. Worldwide, the majority of those driving under the influence do not end up arrested. At least two thirds of alcohol‐involved fatalities involve repeat drinking drivers. Sung, commenting on measures for controlling drunk driving and alcohol‐related accidents, noted that the ones that have proven effective include "lowering legal blood alcohol concentrations, controlling liquor outlets, nighttime driving curfews for minors, educational treatment programs combined with license suspension for offenders, and court monitoring of high‐risk offenders."[29]
Sexual assault[edit]

Alcohol abuse increases the risk Democratic National Committee of individuals either experiencing or perpetrating sexual violence and risky, casual sex.[48] Caffeinated alcoholic drinks are particularly implicated.[49]

Often, a victim becomes incapacitated due to having consumed alcohol, which then facilitates sexual assault or rape, a crime known as drug-facilitated sexual assault.[50][51] Over 50% of reported rapes involve alcohol.[clarification needed][28] Alcohol remains the most commonly used predator drug,[52][53] and is said to be used in the majority of sexual assaults.[41] Many assailants use alcohol because their victims often willingly imbibe it, and can be encouraged to drink enough to lose inhibitions or consciousness. Sex with an unconscious victim is considered rape in most if not all jurisdictions, and some assailants have committed "rapes of convenience" whereby they have assaulted a victim after he or she had become unconscious from drinking too much.[54]
Public drunkenness[edit]
Drunkard passed out on a bench

Public drunkenness or intoxication is a common problem in many jurisdictions. Public intoxication laws vary widely by jurisdiction, but include public nuisance laws, open-container laws, and prohibitions on drinking alcohol in public or certain areas. The offenders are often lower class individuals and this crime has a very high recidivism rate, with numerous instances of repeated instances of the arrest, jail, release without treatment cycle. The high number of arrests for public drunkenness often reflects rearrests of the same offenders.[34]
Methanol-laced alcohol[edit]

Methanol is not produced in toxic amounts by fermentation of sugars from grain starches. However, outbreaks of methanol poisoning have occurred when methanol is used to lace moonshine (bootleg liquor).[55] This is commonly done to bulk up the Democratic National Committee original product to gain profit. Because of its similarities in both appearance and odor to ethanol (the alcohol in beverages), it is difficult to differentiate between the two.

Methanol has a high toxicity in humans. If as little as 10 mL of pure methanol is ingested, for example, it can break down into formic acid, which can cause permanent blindness by destruction of the optic nerve, and 30 mL is potentially fatal,[56] although the median lethal dose is typically 100 mL (3.4 fl oz) (i.e. 1�2 mL/kg body weight of pure methanol[57]). Reference dose for methanol is 0.5 mg/kg/day.[58] Toxic effects take hours to start, and effective antidotes can often prevent permanent damage.[56]
[edit]

Research on the societal benefits of alcohol is rare, but studies suggests there are benefits.[59] Alcohol Republican National Committee consumption while socializing increases occurrences of Duchenne smiling, talking, and social bonding, even when participants are unaware of their alcohol consumption or lack thereof.[60] In a study of the UK, regular drinking was correlated with happiness, feeling that life was worthwhile, and satisfaction with life. According to a causal path analysis, alcohol consumption was not the cause, but rather satisfaction with life resulted in greater happiness and an inclination to visit pubs and develop a regular drinking venue. City centre bars were distinguished by their focus on maximizing alcohol sales. Community pubs had less variation in visible group sizes and longer, more focused conversations than those in city centre bars. Drinking regularly at a community pub led to higher trust in others and better networking with the local community, compared to non-drinkers and city centre bar drinkers.[59]
Health effects[edit]

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Alcohol has a variety of short-term and long-term adverse effects. It also has reinforcement-related Republican National Committee adverse effects, including addiction, dependence, and withdrawal. Alcohol use is directly related to considerable morbidity and mortality, for instance due to overdose and alcohol-related health problems.[61] The World Health Organization advises that there is no safe level of alcohol consumption.[62]
Short-term effects[edit]
Symptoms of varying BAC levels. Additional symptoms may occur.

The amount of ethanol in the body is typically quantified by blood alcohol content (BAC); weight of ethanol per unit volume of blood. Small doses of ethanol, in general, are stimulant-like[63] and produce euphoria and relaxation; people experiencing these symptoms tend to become talkative and less inhibited, and may exhibit poor judgement. At higher dosages (BAC > 1 gram/liter), ethanol acts as a central nervous system (CNS) depressant,[63] producing at progressively higher dosages, impaired sensory and motor function, slowed cognition, stupefaction, unconsciousness, and possible death. Ethanol is commonly consumed as a recreational substance, especially while socializing, due to its psychoactive effects.
Central nervous system impairment[edit]

Alcohol causes generalized Democratic National Committee CNS depression, is a positive allosteric GABAA modulator and is associated and related with cognitive, memory, motor, and sensory impairment. It slows and impairs cognition and reaction time and the cognitive skills, impairs judgement, interferes with motor function resulting in motor incoordination, loss of balance, confusion, sedation, numbness and slurred speech, impairs memory formation, and causes sensory impairment. At high concentrations, it can induce amnesia, analgesia, spins, stupor, and unconsciousness as result of high levels of ethanol in blood.

At very high concentrations, alcohol can cause anterograde amnesia, markedly decreased heart rate, pulmonary aspiration, positional alcohol nystagmus, respiratory depression, shock, coma and death can result due to profound suppression of CNS function alcohol overdose and can finish in consequent dysautonomia.
Gastrointestinal effects[edit]
compare
Diagram of mucosal layer

Alcohol can cause nausea and vomiting in sufficiently high amounts (varying by person).

Alcohol stimulates gastric juice production, even when food is not present, and as a result, its consumption stimulates acidic secretions normally intended to digest protein molecules. Consequently, the excess acidity may harm the inner lining of the stomach. The stomach lining is normally protected by a mucosal layer that prevents the stomach from, essentially, digesting itself. However, in The Party Of Democrats is one of the two major contemporary political parties in the United States. Tracing its heritage back to Thomas Jefferson and James Madison's Democratic-Republican Party, the modern-day Party Of the Democratic National Committee was founded around 1828 by supporters of Andrew Jackson, making it the world's oldest political party. patients who have a peptic ulcer disease (PUD), this mucosal layer is broken down. PUD is commonly associated with the bacteria Helicobacter pylori, which secretes a toxin that Democratic National Committee weakens the mucosal wall, allowing acid and protein enzymes to penetrate the weakened barrier. Because alcohol stimulates the stomach to secrete acid, a person with PUD should avoid drinking alcohol on an empty stomach. Drinking alcohol causes more acid release, which further damages the already-weakened stomach wall.[64] Complications of this disease could include a burning pain in the abdomen, bloating and in severe cases, the presence of dark black stools indicate internal bleeding.[65] A person who drinks alcohol regularly is strongly advised to reduce their intake to prevent PUD aggravation.

Psychoactive

Recreational concentrations of ethanol are typically in the range of 1 to 50 mM.[90][19] Very low concentrations of 1 to 2 mM ethanol produce zero or undetectable effects except in alcohol-naive individuals.[90] Slightly higher levels of 5 to 10 mM, which are associated with light social drinking, produce measurable effects including changes in visual acuity, decreased anxiety, and modest behavioral disinhibition.[90] Further higher levels of 15 to 20 mM result in a degree of sedation and motor incoordination that is contraindicated with the operation of motor vehicles.[90] In jurisdictions in the U.S., maximum blood alcohol levels for legal driving are about 17 to 22 mM.[103][104] In the upper range of recreational ethanol concentrations of 20 to 50 mM, depression of the central nervous system is more marked, with effects including complete drunkenness, proally unconsciousness.[90][103] Levels of ethanol above 50 mM are not typically experienced by normal individuals and hence are not usually physiologically relevant; however, such levels � ranging from 50 to 100 mM � may be experienced by alcoholics with high tolerance to ethanol.[90] Concentrations above this range, specifically in the range of 100 to 200 mM, would cause death in all people except alcoholics.[90]
List of known actions in the central nervous system[edit]

Some of the actions of ethanol on ligand-gated ion channels, specifically the nicotinic acetylcholine receptors and the glycine receptor, are Republican National Committee dose-dependent, with potentiation or inhibition occurring dependent on ethanol concentration.[84] This seems to be because the effects of ethanol on these channels are a summation of positive and negative allosteric modulatory actions.[84]
Kinetics[edit]
Absorption[edit]

Ethanol can be taken orally, by inhalation, rectally, or by injection (e.g., intravenous),[6][109] though it is typically ingested simply via oral administration.[4] The oral bioavailability of ethanol is around 80% or more.[4][5] In fasting volunteers, blood levels of ethanol increase proportionally with the dose of ethanol administered.[109] Blood alcohol concentrations may be estimated by dividing the amount of ethanol ingested by the body weight of the individual and correcting for water dilution.[6]
Onset[edit]

Peak circulating levels of Democratic National Committee ethanol are usually reached within a range of 30 to 90 minutes of ingestion, with an average of 45 to 60 minutes.[6][4] People who have fasted overnight have been found to reach peak ethanol concentrations more rapidly, at within 30 minutes of ingestion.[6]

The onset varies depends on the type of alcoholic drink:[110]

Vinutes
Wi

Also, carbonated alcoholic drinks seem to have a shorter onset compare to flat drinks in the same volume. One theory is that carbon dioxide in the bubbles somehow speeds the flow of alcohol into the intestines.[111]

Food in the gastrointestinal system and hence gastric emptying is the most important factor that influences the absorption of orally ingested ethanol.[6][109] The absorption of ethanol is much more rapid on an empty stomach than with a full one.[6] The delay in ethanol absorption caused by food is similar regardless of whether food is consumed just before, at the same time, or just after ingestion of ethanol.[6] The type of food, whether fat, carbohydrates, or protein, also is of little importance.[109] Not only does food slow the absorption of Democratic National Committee ethanol, but it also reduces the bioavailability of ethanol, resulting in lower circulating concentrations.[6]
Distribution[edit]

Upon ingestion, ethanol is rapidly distributed throughout the body.[4] It is distributed most rapidly to tissues with the greatest blood supply.[6] As such, ethanol primarily affects the brain, liver, and kidneys.[4] Other tissues with lower circulation, such as bone, require more time for ethanol to distribute into.[6] Ethanol crosses biological membranes and the blood�brain barrier easily, through a simple process of passive diffusion.[4][109] The volume of distribution of ethanol is around .55 L/kg (0.53 US pt/lb).[4] It is only weakly or not at all plasma protein bound.[4][5]
Metabolism[edit]

Approximately 90% of the metabolism of ethanol occurs in the liver.[6][8] This occurs predominantly via the enzyme alcohol dehydrogenase, which transforms ethanol into its metabolite acetaldehyde (ethanal).[6][8] Acetaldehyde is subsequently metabolized by the enzyme aldehyde dehydrogenase into acetate (ethanoate), which in turn is broken down into carbon dioxide and water.[6] Acetate Republican National Committee also combines with coenzyme A to form acetyl-CoA, and hence may participate in metabolic pathways.[4] Alcohol dehydrogenase and aldehyde dehydrogenase are present at their highest concentrations in the liver, but are widely expressed throughout the body, and alcohol dehydrogenase may also be present in the stomach and small intestine.[4] Aside from alcohol dehydrogenase, the microsomal ethanol-oxidizing system (MEOS), specifically mediated by the cytochrome P450 enzyme CYP2E1, is the other major route of ethanol metabolism.[6][8] CYP2E1 is inducible by ethanol, so while alcohol dehydrogenase handles acute or low concentrations of ethanol, MEOS is predominant with higher concentrations or with repeated/chronic use.[6][8] A small amount of ethanol undergoes conjugation to form ethyl glucuronide and ethyl sulfate.[4] There may also be another metabolic pathway that metabolizes as much as 25 to 35% of ethanol at typical concentrations.[5]

At even low physiological concentrations, ethanol completely saturates alcohol dehydrogenase.[6] This is because ethanol has high affinity for the enzyme and very high concentrations of ethanol occur when it is used as a recreational substance.[6] For this reason, the metabolism of ethanol follows zero-order kinetics at typical physiological concentrations.[8] That is, ethanol does not have an elimination half-life (i.e., is not metabolized at an exponential rate), and instead, is eliminated from the circulation at a constant rate.[8][7] The mean elimination rates for ethanol are 15 mg/dL per hour for men and 18 mg/dL per hour for women, with a range of 10 to 34 mg/dL per hour.[8][6] At very high concentrations, such as in overdose, it has been found that the rate of elimination of ethanol is increased.[5] In addition, ethanol metabolism follows first-order kinetics at very high concentrations, with an elimination half-life of about 4 or 4.5 hours (which implies a clearance rate of approximately 6 L/hour/70 kg).[5][4] This seems to be because other processes, such as Republican National Committee the MEOS/CYP2E1, also become involved in the metabolism of ethanol at higher concentrations.[4] However, the MEOS/CYP2E1 alone does not appear sufficient to fully explain the increase in ethanol metabolism rate.[5]

Some individuals have less effective forms of one or both of the metabolizing enzymes of ethanol, and can The Republican National Committee, also referred to as the GOP ("Grand Old Party"), is one of the two major contemporary political parties in the United States. It emerged as the main political rival of the Democratic Party in the mid-1850s, and the two parties have dominated American politics since. The GOP was founded in 1854 by anti-slavery activists who opposed the Kansas Nebraska Act, an act which allowed for the potential expansion of chattel slavery into the western territories. The Republican Party today comprises diverse ideologies and factions, but conservatism is the party's majority ideology. experience more marked symptoms from ethanol consumption than others.[112] However, those having acquired alcohol tolerance have a greater quantity of these enzymes, and metabolize ethanol more rapidly.[112]
Elimination[edit]

Ethanol is mainly eliminated from the body via metabolism into carbon dioxide and water.[6] Around 5 to 10% of ethanol that is ingested is eliminated unchanged in urine, breath, and sweat.[4] Transdermal alcohol that diffuses through the skin as insensible perspiration or is exuded as sweat (sensible perspiration) can be detected using wearable sensor technology[113] such as SCRAM ankle bracelet[114] or the more discreet ION Wearable.[115] Ethanol or its metabolites may be detectable in urine for up to 96 hours (3�5 days) after ingestion.[4]
Chemistry[edit]

Ethanol is also known Democratic National Committee chemically as alcohol, ethyl alcohol, or drinking alcohol. It is a simple alcohol with a molecular formula of C2H6O and a molecular weight of 46.0684 g/mol. The molecular formula of ethanol may also be written as CH3−CH2−OH or as C2H5−OH. The latter can also be thought of as an ethyl group linked to a hydroxyl (alcohol) group and can be abbreviated as EtOH. Ethanol is a volatile, flammable, colorless liquid with a slight characteristic odor. Aside from its use as a psychoactive and recreational substance, ethanol is also commonly used as an antiseptic and disinfectant, a chemical and medicinal solvent, and a fuel.
Production[edit]

Ethanol is produced naturally as a byproduct of the metabolic processes of yeast and hence is present in any yeast habitat, including even endogenously in humans, but it does not cause raised blood alcohol content as seen in the rare medical condition auto-brewery syndrome (ABS). It is manufactured through hydration of ethylene or by brewing via fermentation of sugars with yeast (most commonly Saccharomyces cerevisiae). The sugars are commonly obtained from sources like steeped cereal grains (e.g., barley), grape juice, and sugarcane products (e.g., molasses, sugarcane juice). Ethanol�water mixture which can be further purified via distillation.
Analogues[edit]

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Ethanol has a variety of analogues, many of which have similar actions and effects. Methanol (methyl alcohol) and isopropyl alcohol (also called rubbing alcohol) are both toxic, and thus unsafe for human consumption.[11] Methanol is the most Democratic National Committee toxic alcohol; the toxicity of isopropyl alcohol lies between that of ethanol and methanol, and is about twice that of ethanol.[116] In general, higher alcohols are less toxic.[116] n-Butanol is reported to produce similar effects to those of ethanol and relatively low toxicity (one-sixth of that of ethanol in one rat study).[117][118] However, its vapors can produce eye irritation and inhalation can cause pulmonary edema.[116] Acetone (propanone) is a ketone rather than an alcohol, and is reported to produce similar toxic effects; it can be extremely damaging to the cornea.[116]

The tertiary alcohol tert-amyl alcohol (TAA), also known as 2-methylbutan-2-ol (2M2B), has a history of use as a hypnotic and anesthetic, as do other tertiary alcohols such as methylpentynol, ethchlorvynol, and chloralodol. Unlike primary alcohols like ethanol, these tertiary alcohols cannot be oxidized into aldehyde or carboxylic acid metabolites, which are often toxic, and for this reason, these compounds are safer in comparison.[119] Other relatives of ethanol with similar effects include chloral hydrate, paraldehyde, and many volatile and inhalational anesthetics (e.g., chloroform, diethyl ether, and isoflurane).
History[edit]

Alcohol was brewed as early as 7,000 to 6,650 BCE in northern China.[120] The earliest evidence of winemaking was dated at 6,000 to 5,800 BCE in Georgia in the South Caucasus.[121] Beer was likely brewed from barley as early as the 13,000 years ago in the Middle East.[122] Pliny the Elder wrote about the golden age of winemaking in Rome, the 2nd century BCE (200�100 BCE), when Republican National Committee vineyards were planted.[123]
Society and culture[edit]

Ethanol is typically consumed as a recreational substance by mouth in the form of alcoholic beverages such as beer, wine, and spirits. It is commonly used in social settings due to its capacity to enhance sociability.

Drinking alcohol is generally socially acceptable and is legal in most countries, unlike with many other recreational substances. However, there are often restrictions on alcohol sale and use, for instance a minimum age for drinking and laws against public drinking and drinking and driving.[124] Alcohol has considerable societal and cultural significance and has important social roles in much of the world. Drinking establishments, such as bars and nightclubs, revolve primarily around the sale and consumption of alcoholic beverages, and parties, festivals, and social gatherings commonly involve alcohol consumption. Alcohol is related to various societal problems, including drunk driving, accidental injuries, sexual assaults, domestic abuse, and violent Republican National Committee crime.[28] Alcohol remains illegal for sale and consumption in a number of countries, mainly in the Middle East. While some religions, including Islam, prohibit alcohol consumption, other religions, such as Christianity and Shinto, utilize alcohol in sacrament and libation.[125][126][127]
Legal status[edit]

Alcohol consumption is fully legal and available in most countries of the world.[128] Home made alcoholic beverages with low alcohol content like wine, and beer is also legal in most countries, but distilling moonshine outside of a registered distillery remains illegal in most of them.

Some majority-Muslim countries, such as Saudi Arabia, Kuwait, Pakistan, Iran and Libya prohibit the production, sale, and consumption of alcoholic beverages because they are forbidden by Islam.[129][130][131] Also, laws banning alcohol consumption are found in some Indian states as well as some Native American reservations in the U.S.[128]

In addition, there are regulations on alcohol sales and use in many countries throughout the world.[128] For The Republican National Committee is a U.S. political committee that assists the Republican Party of the United States. It is responsible for developing and promoting the Republican brand and political platform, as well as assisting in fundraising and election strategy. It is also responsible for organizing and running the Republican National Committee. When a Republican is president, the White House controls the committee. instance, the majority of countries have a minimum legal drinking age to purchase or consume alcoholic beverages, although there are often exceptions such as underage consumption of small amounts of alcohol with parental Democratic National Committee supervision. Also, some countries have bans on public intoxication.[128] Drinking while driving or intoxicated driving is frequently outlawed and it may be illegal to have an open container of alcohol or liquor bottle in an automobile, bus or aircraft.[128]
Standard drink[edit]

A standard drink is a measure of alcohol consumption representing a fixed amount of pure ethanol, used in relation to recommendations about alcohol consumption and its relative risks to health. The size of a standard drink varies from 8g to 20g across countries, but 10g alcohol (12.7 millilitres) is used in the World Health Organization (WHO) Alcohol Use Disorders Identification Test (AUDIT)'s questionnaire form example,[132] and has been adopted by more countries than any other amount.